Regenerative resilience in the South Sudan displacement context

South Sudan faces several challenges, including armed conflict, inter-ethnic tension, sociopolitical instability and a refugee crisis, as it attempts to navigate a revitalised peace agreement and a transition leading to elections later in 2024. Meanwhile, it also grapples with severe impacts of climate change, which in recent years has primarily been in the form of extreme flooding and dry spells. Natural disasters compound the existing challenges faced by the population, including food insecurity and conflict.

Although South Sudan is rich in arable land and has a youthful population (75% of the population is under 35 years of age), communities are exceptionally vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture. South Sudan’s agricultural potential has not been fully realised, because of limited infrastructure, rudimentary farming practices, conflict and displacement, which are further exacerbated by increasingly erratic weather patterns and environmental degradation. Rampant deforestation across the region has stripped the watershed of its protective cover, further increasing the risks of future floods.

In 2021–2022, several areas of the country witnessed the most severe flooding in six decades, affecting an estimated one million people. Unity State was among the hardest-hit regions, where the Danish Refugee Council (DRC) had been working with communities for several years. The massive flooding ruined nearly 90% of agricultural and forest lands in Rubkona County, rendering many areas permanently waterlogged.

The ongoing war in Sudan led to a sudden influx of nearly 287,000 returnees and 39,000 Sudanese refugees, placing additional strain on the country’s already stretched resources and infrastructure, amplifying the humanitarian crisis. The war also contributed to severing trade supply routes that come into South Sudan, driving up the prices of essential commodities by as much as 60%.

Climate- and conflict-related displacement disproportionately affects women who provide most of the agricultural productive labour. Women already face dangerous journeys to fetch firewood, wading through flooded water, and exposing themselves to threats of predators or even various forms of gender-based violence (GBV), including rape. Women are also exposed to risks of GBV when displaced in camp settings.

In response to these multifaceted challenges, the DRC – present in South Sudan since 2005 – embarked on innovative, regenerative resilience-building. This focuses on climate-adaptive agriculture and livelihoods, using a holistic approach that not only aims to enable people to adapt to the changing climate and mitigate its impacts, but also seeks to regenerate and restore ecosystems, communities and social systems to a healthier and more sustainable state. In all its activities, the DRC uses regular conflict analysis and monitoring of the impacts of its work on conflict to adapt accordingly and ensure conflict sensitivity.

These pilot activities aim to address immediate household needs relating to: (i) food security, (ii) access to clean energy and (iii) environmental protection.

Floating gardens, chinampa farming and permaculture for food security during floods

Floating gardens, a traditional practice from Mesoamerica, offers farmers in South Sudan a means to maintain or boost agricultural productivity during flooding. The approach involves weaving together aquatic plants, primarily the invasive water hyacinth, to create floating beds that rise and fall with water levels. Crops cultivated in these beds evade waterlogging and benefit from nutrient-rich decomposing matter. As water levels recede during the dry season, the beds are ploughed into the soil for winter crop cultivation.

The DRC developed a floating garden pilot plot, adapted for the South Sudanese context, through experimentation with various floating materials and transplantation techniques. Local communities were engaged in the process, and the traditional practice showed great potential. In 2024, the DRC is set to scale up the floating garden initiative by working with 100 flood-affected women to establish an additional 50 floating garden plots.

Chinampa farming is another example of a climate-adaptive technology (widely practised in Mexico) that the DRC has piloted in South Sudan. Raised agricultural beds are built by youth, men and women (via cash-for-work schemes) using soil and organic materials such as dried grass, ruminant manure, indigenous water plants and fish waste, packed layer upon layer to create beds full of fertile material and moisture. Women collect local materials to reinforce the beds’ structures, particularly against erosion during periods of high water levels. Following a successful pilot, the DRC developed another eight chinampa plots in 2022 and is now adding a further 26 chinampas benefiting 148 farmers (104 women, 44 men).

The DRC also introduced five perma-gardens in Rubkona County to showcase the potential of creating food forests rich in agrobiodiversity. These innovative gardens incorporate a variety of shrubs and crops, carefully selected to ensure year-round production. The perma-gardens not only provide a sustainable source of fibre-rich food but are also an essential source of fodder for livestock, fuel, and even medicinal plants. The same concept has also been used to complement other vegetable gardens and engage farmers through field schools, to foster agricultural innovation and sustainability.

Bio-briquettes for clean energy

After the flooding, communities in South Sudan struggled to meet energy needs as floodwaters compromised firewood sources. The DRC introduced a clean energy initiative in Rubkona in partnership with the World Food Programme (WFP). This initiative involved training 20 local women in clean energy and biofuel preparation using water hyacinth. The process encompassed carbonisation of water hyacinth, preparation of water hyacinth–molasses blends, densification/briquetting, and moulding of the resulting briquettes. After some trial and error, communities succeeded in producing briquettes. The DRC also provided training to women in energy-efficient stove production and offered business development and Village Savings and Loan Association training for sustainability. The fuel-efficiency initiatives contribute to reducing deforestation rates, carbon emissions and indoor air pollution in households.

Agroforestry – supporting climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation

Large numbers of refugees from Sudan have been living in camps in the Ruweng Administrative Area of South Sudan for years. The population has only grown with the renewed fighting in Sudan. The population growth has increased firewood harvesting, resulting in indiscriminate tree felling. The DRC has established community-managed tree nurseries for various fruit- and non-fruit-bearing trees. These efforts include agroforestry initiatives, integrating trees and shrubs into crop and animal farming systems to create environmental, economic and social benefits. The four major benefits of agroforestry include climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, soil health improvement, and air and water quality improvement. To reduce tree cutting, the DRC also trains households on fuel efficiency and provides movable fuel-efficient stoves. These stoves not only improve air quality but also reduce the emission of carbon particulates and greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change mitigation. Environmental management awareness sessions further prepare communities on how to mitigate climate change and deal with environmental challenges through efficient management of natural resources.

Lessons learned: building community resilience to climate change impacts

Though the initiatives have had positive resilience outcomes, they have also faced challenges and generated lessons, which we delve into in this section.

The floating gardens and chinampas have expanded the availability of agricultural land for food production, particularly during flooding seasons when access to arable land is limited. Farmers have adapted to the challenges posed by floods by making use of the flood water and employing flood-adaptive agricultural techniques to create new agricultural opportunities, but some of the technologies face issues of seasonality. If the floods in the wet months are not large enough for the chinampas, the waters risk drying up during the dry seasons. With increasing changes in climate and weather patterns, the chinampa technique may require adaptations.

The process of local communities adopting new agricultural techniques is gradual, and it often takes time for communities to recognise and realise the tangible benefits of these methods. One of the foremost challenges relates to reconciling the long-term nature of resilience-building efforts, reliant on gradual behavioural change, with meeting immediate humanitarian needs. Finding a balance between these two imperatives remains an ongoing challenge, as the benefits of resilience-building may not be immediately visible but are crucial for long-term sustainability and self-reliance. Particularly in a protracted humanitarian crisis, as seen in South Sudan, short-term funding cycles hamper opportunities to build longer-term resilience which would help to protect communities from future climate impacts, thereby reducing future humanitarian need.

Another challenge stems from the fact that the pilot initiatives introduced were foreign to South Sudan and borrowed from other contexts. Integrating and adapting these ideas at community level took time; they needed to be tailored to the unique local conditions and cultures, as communities were accustomed to conventional agricultural practices.

The introduction of clean energy initiatives, such as the production of briquettes for cooking fuel from processed water hyacinth, has not only broadened climate-resilient livelihood options for women but has also supplied households with a clean energy source. This, in turn, has led to a reduction in carbon emissions and improved community-led natural resource management. However, similarly to the chinampas, the water hyacinth is a seasonal plant. Communities need to be prepared to collect large amounts during the season to support their needs throughout the year. Additionally, for some communities the hyacinth is located at distances from their homes and a canoe is required to travel on water to access water hyacinth.

The planting of shade trees has had many benefits beyond those originally planned, but similarly to the two other initiatives, has faced challenges. Beyond providing shade and respite from the scorching heat, these trees have played a pivotal role in regulating the impacts of climate change. Around 30% of participants reported a reduction in heat at their homesteads as a direct result of having shade trees. This reduction in heat has had a cascading effect, facilitating agroforestry initiatives that have improved crop production conditions. Notably, these initiatives have mitigated the adverse effects of dry spells that previously hindered productivity. However, the choice of the neem tree has led to issues of community members removing branches from the woodlot, as the branches have traditionally been used for other household purposes, such as cleaning and whitening teeth.

Additionally, many of the trees have been fruit-bearing, which has proven to be highly effective in addressing household nutritional needs, surpassing the original expectations of the project. By offering an alternative food source, these trees have significantly improved household dietary intake. This initiative benefits over 10,250 households, with 200,000 seedlings produced for distribution and planting within woodlots.

These challenges were addressed in two key ways. Firstly, the DRC has worked to ensure that households adopt these initiatives, rather than seeking to implement them on a larger scale. This approach allows for a more customised implementation process, considering the available solutions and the household’s interests. Communities have displayed immense enthusiasm for planting trees to address food insecurity and natural resource conservation. Secondly, community engagement has been key to foster ownership and empower community members in driving forward their development priorities. Ultimately, this collaborative approach not only enhanced the effectiveness of the DRC’s efforts but also promoted sustainable, long-term solutions that resonate with the people we aim to assist.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the challenges faced by South Sudan, from climate change impacts to food insecurity and conflict, have contributed to the dire humanitarian situation. To address the multifaceted issues stemming from displacement and climate change impacts, the DRC embarked on innovative resilience-building initiatives on climate-adaptive agriculture, clean energy, and natural resource management, to both address immediate needs and restore ecosystems and communities to a healthier and more sustainable state. Challenges encountered include the balancing of long-term resilience-building with meeting immediate humanitarian needs, adapting foreign ideas to local conditions, and working with short-term funding cycles that are not conducive to long-term resilience strengthening.

In protracted humanitarian crises like South Sudan, there is a need for sustained and flexible funding that bridges the gap between humanitarian and development financing, and which enables the incorporation of crisis response and prevention, as well as longer-term resilience building. This would allow for strengthening long-term resilience to recurring shocks and stresses, reducing future humanitarian need. Second, community participation and ownership of projects is key, and engaging local communities in the design and adaptation of initiatives is critical for long-term success. Lastly, providing support to communities beyond the conclusion of projects has proved useful to ensure that newly acquired skills and approaches are used and disseminated among the community, reinforcing their ability to respond to and mitigate future crises.

Rebecca M. Bushby is the Global Climate Adaptation Adviser at the Danish Refugee Council.

Cedric Shingirai Regede is the Economic Recovery Coordinator in South Sudan.